Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
- To become aware of listening and speaking skills in order to promote better and more effective communication!
PLEASE NOTE:-
- The intent of this session is to raise awareness of issues that may impact on the effectiveness of communications – specifically radio communications.
- This is not meant to be an ‘English class’, but rather a discussion on improving the effectiveness of communication!
English Proficiency
CASA
Much of the material presented in this session is taken from the CASA publication shown.
Some Things to Consider
The single biggest problem in communication is the illusion that it has taken place.
George Bernard Shaw
Each one of us is the sum total of our past life. We rationalise, analyse and interpret information through our own unique frame of reference.
What we perceive we have communicated may not be how the recipient perceives the same information – after all, two different frames of reference have been used.
Consider that:-
- WE write something down for someone to read.
- WE say something for someone to hear. George Bernard Shaw
- WE therefore have an obligation to communicate that information in such a way as to minimise the possibility of it being misunderstood!
Communication
A Two Way Process!
Communication is a two-way process. A more thorough understanding of how English is used will enable more effective communication with both native and non-native English-speakers.
With a greater awareness of English, you will be better able to avoid communication problems or to rectify them quickly.
It is not sufficient for you, the Level 6 Expert Speaker, to argue that the other person had such a poor command of the language that the accident, incident or misunderstanding was not your responsibility.
This presentation is about raising your linguistic awareness.
Expert Speaker of English?
ICAO has specified six criteria for assessing the level of language proficiency. These are:
- pronunciation
- structure
- vocabulary
- fluency
- comprehension
- interactions
ICAO requires that an Expert Speaker performs very well in all of these criteria.
Someone with a speech defect, which hinders their ability to say certain sounds or groups of sounds, does not meet the requirements for Level 6 Expert Speaker, nor does someone who performs poorly in any one of the criteria.
Australian English
Australian English has three main varieties, each of which has its own accent and, to some extent, its own vocabulary:
- General Australian English. This is the most common in polite conversation. Most news readers, TV announcers and media personnel speak this variety.
- Broad Australian. This is the language typified by Crocodile Dundee and other Australian characters in movies. Sometimes referred to as ‘Strine’ (from the word ‘Australian’ spoken in this accent).
- Cultivated Australian. It is spoken by comparatively few Australians. It resembles a variety used in southern England and known to linguists as Received Pronunciation. To our ears, it sounds the most like British English.
The three varieties of Australian English are not linked to regions or to social backgrounds. All three varieties are used in the cities and the bush, and often by the same person at different times.
Speaking and Sounds
Pronunciation
The Table below, which summarises the pronunciation skills of a Level 6 Expert Speaker.
Level | Descriptors | Additional Information |
6 | Pronunciation, stress rhythm, and intonation, though possibly influenced by the first language or regional variation, almost never interfere with ease of understanding. | An Expert Level 6 speaker may be a speaker of English as a first language with a widely understood dialect or may be a very proficient second-language speaker, again with a widely used or understood accent and/or dialect. The speakers’ accent or dialect may or may not identify them as second language users, but the pronunciation patterns of Expert speakers or any difficulties, “mistakes’: almost never interfere with the ease with which they are understood. Always clear and understandable. |
Vowels and Consonants
Among all varieties of English, including the three varieties of Australian English, there is much more variation in the pronunciation of the vowel sounds (a, e, i, o, u) than there is between consonants (b, d, f, m, s, etc).
Our brains do a wonderful job filling in gaps and obtaining meaning, even when individual sounds may have been pronounced less than perfectly.
While our brains are good at filling in many gaps, they cannot always do so. A speaker who makes numerous mistakes in pronouncing consonants and clusters of consonants is more difficult to understand than one who confuses the length of a pair of vowels, such as in ship/sheep. This is because more information is conveyed by English consonants than by the vowels.
Consider the following exercise:-
The following two aviation-related expressions might be found in an airport. Letters missing – Can you fill in the gaps?
(There is a ‘/’ between each of the words in the two expressions.)
-st-m-t-d/ t-m-/ -f/ d-p-rt-r-
–i—/ i–o–a-io-
- Both expressions have 11 letters missing!
- The first expression is ‘estimated time of departure’.
- This sentence lacks vowels
- The second expression is ‘flight information’.
- This sentence lacks consonants.
Although these examples use written English, the same applies to spoken English: namely, consonants provide more information than vowels.
Stress
Say the following two sentences to yourself, paying attention the way in which you said the underlined word in each sentence.
- CASA kept a record of the incident.
- CASA will record the incident.
What was the difference in your pronunciation of the two underlined words?
In the first sentence, did you pronounce the word record like this: REcord (with the first syllable receiving the most emphasis or stress)?
In the second sentence, did you pronounce the word like this: reCORD (with the stress on the second syllable)?
Changing the stressed word in a sentence can totally change the meaning of the sentence. Consider the simple sentence – ‘I didn’t say I was born in Sydney’.
I didn’t say I was born in Sydney
I didn’t say I was born in Sydney
I didn’t say I was born in Sydney
I didn’t say I was born in Sydney
I didn’t say I was born in Sydney
I didn’t say I was born in Sydney
I didn’t say I was born in Sydney
I didn’t say I was born in Sydney
……so what exactly does this sentence actually mean? What are you trying to communicate? How could you WRITE this to convey the meaning you intended?
Native speakers of English know which syllables to stress for their variety of the language, but this feature of English is difficult for speakers of other languages.
For example, Japanese speakers of English find English stress patterns difficult. The Japanese language gives each syllable similar emphasis. Just think of the pronunciation of the Japanese city, Osaka:
O-SA-KA
Many English speakers mispronounce the name of this city by trying to stress one of its three syllables, such as by incorrectly saying:
o-SA-ka
Japanese language does not stress individual syllables in the way English does.
Swallowed Syllables
In addition to emphasising some syllables, all speakers of English ‘swallow’ other syllables. These ‘swallowed’ syllables are unstressed syllables. They are usually shorter and softer than stressed syllables, and so are more difficult to hear.
The use of standard phraseologies means there is less opportunity for swallowed syllables in your radiotelephony communications, unless you are using ordinary, General English (including General Australian English).
Swallowed syllables are not a problem when one Level 6 Expert Speaker communicates with another, as both can fill in the blanks. However, they may be a problem for non-native speakers of English.
Part of the message may not be heard and, therefore, either not understood, or misunderstood.
Rhythm
Speakers of English not only stress certain syllables, but also squash up unstressed syllables so they maintain a rhythm.
QUIETLY say and listen to the rhythm of these two familiar expressions:
- a) Ham and eggs
- b) Bacon and eggs
Using your pencil or pen, gently tap out the rhythm, giving a tap for each stressed syllable. You should notice that the interval between the two stressed syllables is the same. It takes just as long to say the three syllables in expression a) as it does to say the four syllables in expression b).
In English, the rhythm of the language is influenced by the stressed syllables.
- The shorter, unstressed syllables are pushed together to maintain a regular interval between the beat of the stressed syllables.
- The greater the number of unstressed syllables in the interval between the stressed ones, the more the unstressed ones are swallowed or reduced.
This way of speaking (this rhythm) is very different from the rhythm of languages which give each syllable equal stress. Such languages tend to sound to our ears like a steady rat-tat-tat-tat-tat-tat.
Intonation
In addition to stress and rhythm, English speakers use variations in the level of their voice (or intonation) to show meaning.
Consider the following sentences:
- The co-pilot flew the plane. (Said as a statement)
- The co-pilot flew the plane? (Asked as a Question)
Say both sentences, listening to the change in the level of your voice as you contrast the statement with the question.
In the statement, the tone of your voice, or its level, generally drops towards the end, while in the question the voice tends to rise, or move to a slightly higher level.
Speech Errors
Local and Global Errors
In the following two expressions, we know that the first is grammatically correct, while the second is not:
Does he like flying?
Likes he flying?
Although the expression ‘Likes he flying?’ is incorrect, we can still understand it. Errors such as these are what linguists call local errors.
Local errors do not prevent comprehension.
Global errors are more serious because they interfere with meaning.
Consider the following example! (This is a global error):
The pilot was decided to land the plane.
We cannot tell from this sentence whether the pilot decided to land the plane or whether someone else told the pilot he had to land the plane.
Recognising global errors is an important skill; dealing with them promptly could be life-saving.
- How should you deal with global errors in RTC?
- Asking the other person to read back, or say again, is not necessarily going to solve the problem.
The most appropriate technique is to rephrase the message yourself and obtain confirmation that this is what was meant.
In the following, determine the errors and decide whether they are local (L) or global (G):
- ‘After departure crimbe fife tousand’
- ‘Fastair tree fower fife reduce spee now too wun zero knots.’
- ‘Since monsoon was heavy, lot of flight delayed.’
- ‘Air transport use much people’
Answers:
- Local. crimbe = climb
- Local. spee = speed
- Global. We cannot tell whether this means ‘Lots of flights were delayed after the heavy monsoon’ or ‘Because the monsoon was heavy, a lot of flights were delayed’. There is also a local error in this sentence: lot of flight = either lots of flights or a lot of flights.
- Global. We do not know whether this means Air transport employs ‘a lot of people’ or ‘A lot of people travel by air’. There’s also confusion with much/many, but this does not prevent comprehension, so it is a local error.
Fossilised Errors
An aspect of language that is correct in a person’s first language but which is transferred to their second language and used there incorrectly is known as a ‘fossilised error.
For example, Italian has double consonants both of which are pronounced. The Italian word, casa means house; the Italian word cassa means cash desk or cash box. In Italian it is important to distinguish between the single s and the double ss in these two words, because the meaning is different.
English does not have such contrasts. We do not pronounce the sound ‘s’ twice in the word fossil, for example: we say ‘fosil’. But a speaker of Italian may pronounce that English word according to the rules of Italian and say, ‘’fos-sil’.
It is very difficult to totally replace the sound system of one’s first language with those of the second language.
Those elements of the first language which are incorrectly transferred to the second language and remain there are called fossils.
If they do not prevent understanding, they are treated as local errors.
Sentence Structure and Clarity
Types of Sentences
As a Level 6 Expert Speaker, you should be able to use not only simple sentences but also compound and complex ones.
Simple sentence: ‘I can’t extend the landing gear.’
Compound sentence: ‘I can’t extend the landing gear and I’m nearly out of fuel.
Complex sentence: ‘If I do a go round, would you visually check my landing gear?’
By definition, compound and complex sentences have more than one verb. They can be thought of as two or more simple sentences combined.
Compound Sentences
Compound sentences use ‘and’ or ‘but’ to combine two or more simple sentences. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined:
He flew to Brisbane and she drove to Sydney.
She flew to Paris but I stayed at home.
Compound sentences are not usually difficult for non-native speakers to say or understand, as virtually all modern languages use them.
Complex Sentences
Complex sentences (as their name implies) are often difficult, both to produce and understand. Non-native speakers of English with a limited command of the language may find them confusing.
In non-routine situations, you would be wise to avoid certain types of complex sentences.
Consider the following complex sentences – and how they may be misunderstood. (Note the comma separating the two parts (or clauses) of each sentence.)
Sentence A: If it had rained heavily, we would have diverted.
Sentence B: If it had rained heavily, we wouldn’t have landed there.
Sentence C: If it hadn’t rained heavily, we would have landed there.
Sentence D: If it hadn’t rained heavily, we wouldn’t have diverted.
Consider these sentences again in a grid to show their parts, and also to consider how many ‘not’ or ‘n’t’ words they contain.
(These ‘not/n’t’ words are called negative words in the table.)
1st Part | 2nd Part | ||
Sentence A | If it had rained heavily (no negative words like not/n’t) | , | we would have diverted. (no negative words) |
Sentence A | If it had rained heavily (no negative words) | , | we wouldn’t have landed there (one negative word) |
Sentence A | If it hadn’t rained heavily I (one negative: not/n’t) | , | we would have landed there. (no negative word) |
Sentence A | If it hadn’t rained heavily (one not/n’t) | , | we wouldn’t have diverted. (one not) |
Complex Sentences – Sentence A
Sentence A has no negative words in it, such as not or n’t; but its meaning includes two negatives.
Sentence A:
If it had rained heavily, we would have diverted.
What sentence A means:
It didn’t rain heavily, so we didn’t divert.
This sentence contains two pluses – meaning two negatives. Both parts, or clauses in this sentence are affirmative, but the meaning is the opposite.
Complex Sentences – Sentence B
Sentence B:
If it had rained heavily, we wouldn’t have landed there.
The first part of this sentence has no negative words, and means:
‘It did not rain heavily.’
The second part of the sentence has a negative word, ‘we wouldn’t have landed there,’ and it means:
‘we did land there’
…….therefore:
‘If it had rained heavily, we wouldn’t have landed there’
really means
It didn’t rain heavily, so we did land there.
or:
It didn’t rain heavily, so we landed there.
Negative Words
Negative questions are best avoided in RTC because the answer may be ambiguous.
Consider the following question and answer:
Aren’t you flying to Adelaide tomorrow?
Answer:
Yes
In Australian English the ‘yes’ means ‘Yes, l am’; but in many varieties it means ‘Yes, I’m not’.
Remember the ICAO Manual states: be clear, concise and direct!
Register
In linguistics ‘register’ has several meanings, but the one we will use here relates to informal/formal language.
For example, when greeting friends or colleagues of similar status we might say:
‘G’day’, or ‘Hi, how’s things?’
These are very informal greetings, commonly used by Australians.
However, when greeting a stranger or a superior, we might say:
‘Good morning, how are you?’, or ‘Good morning, sir’.
Both of these are more formal than the greetings for our friends and colleagues.
Not only is the grammar different, so too is the vocabulary – which is called lexical choice.
Many cultures emphasise formality, and speakers from those cultures may seem to us to be ‘stiff‘ in their interactions. Alternatively, in their attempt to master Australian English, they may come across as too personal or even rude.
From the perspective of those whose cultures value formality, Australians may appear far too casual.
When we interact aeronautically, the best approach is to maintain a friendly but somewhat formal register. If someone inappropriately calls you ‘Sir’ or ‘Madam’ or inappropriately greets you with ‘G’day’, treat it as a minor matter.
Nuance
Vocabulary which is nuanced has delicate shades of difference. (A variation in tone or meaning is called a nuance.)
Consider the following reply to a manager’s email summarizing a performance review in which the employee was advised his work was less than satisfactory and required improvement:
I do not agree with the remarks in your email. I find them very inappropriate. I do not believe you have reason to accuse me of unsatisfactory performance. I have never received negative feedback in my previous jobs. If you do not take back your comments, I plan to take this to a higher level.
The use of words like “do not”, “very inappropriate”, “accuse”, “never”, “negative”, and the short, clipped sentences – and a threat – the employee is sending a message that has a very confrontational attitude.
What kind of reaction from the manager might this message produce?
Most managers are aware that they need to provide “constructive criticism”, not outright condemnation, of an employee’s performance. Most managers will use indirect language in their written and spoken assessments.
Had the individual softened his tone by beginning with a neutral opening statement like, I have read your summary in regard to my performance evaluation, and “I have to say that your comments caught me by surprise,” he would have left a very different impression.
In this way, his message would have matched that of his manager’s in terms of attitude.
While a Level 6 Expert Speaker is able to convey subtle differences of meaning, in your RTC interactions you need to state clearly what you require, and you need to respond clearly.
The use of indirect language and subtle messages can cause confusion and require “reading between the lines” to interpret the intended message – before an appropriate response can be formulated.
Before writing and sending any kind of business communication, make a conscious decision about what tone you want to deliver based on the purpose, audience and desired outcome.
The RTC environment is no place for subtle differences in meaning. These can lead to misunderstandings and safety hazards. Stick to being clear. If in doubt, seek clarification.
Fluency
Although fluency is a difficult concept to define, most speakers have an ‘intuitive’ sense of what it is.
As radiotelephony communications take place in a busy environment, the communications of air traffic controllers and pilots must not only be clear, concise and unambiguous, but responses must be delivered efficiently and a rapid response time is expected.
For our purposes, “fluency“ is intended to refer to the ‘naturalness’ of speech production – the degree to which comprehension is impeded by any unnatural or unusual hesitancy, distracting starts and stops , distracting fillers (em…huh…er…) or inappropriate silence.
Discourse Markers and Connectors
Discourse markers and connectors are words which help the listener to follow the flow of a conversation. Consider the following:
Speaker A: What would you do if shortly after take-off your colleague in the cockpit appeared to have fainted?
Speaker B: First, I would speak to him to try to confirm that he has actually fainted – and then I would….
The underlined words (or discourse markers and connectors) help the listener follow the flow of the message.
As an Expert Speaker fluency will not be a problem because you do not have to search for every word, nor worry about stress, rhythm, intonation and so on. You can produce speech with a natural flow’.
However, your natural speed of speech may be fast and so may be difficult for non-native speakers of English to understand.
Understanding Speech
Recognising a Failure to Understand
We can help communication by speaking clearly and avoiding slang and colloquial expressions.
It is useful to remember that, in some cultures, loss of face is an important issue. Loss of face roughly means embarrassment, humiliation or a loss of self-esteem.
A loud, impatient tone of voice, when speaking to Vietnamese and Chinese speakers, for example, may contribute to a loss of face.
In many cultures senior, or older, people do not like to ask for information or help, particularly when they are expected to have that information or skill already.
Similarly, in some cultures, people try to avoid giving a direct refusal because this means the person who is asking could suffer a loss of face.
Recognising a Failure to Understand – Example
Verbal cues include behaviour such as speaking louder, putting more emphasis on certain words, or saying something twice, as in the ‘words twice’ request.
Inappropriate interactions may indicate a message has not been understood, as in the following exchange:
Speaker A: Can you tell me where you learned to fly?
Speaker B: In 1993.
Non-verbal cues include facial expressions for example a frown, a smile or a puzzled look. These cues also include gestures and body language (a shrug of the shoulders, a shake or nod of the head, or movement of the hands). Inappropriate periods of silence may also be non-verbal cues; it is the only non-verbal cue between control and pilot after the aircraft is flying. Non-verbal cues also relate to communications between the flight crew, within the cockpit.
Simulated Interaction
‘Fuel Lines’ Recording
When a message is not understood, it can be a waste of time repeating it at a louder volume, because this can alter the stress and rhythm and create different problems.
It is better to use short, common words. In other words, rephrase the message in a controlled way:
Pilot: A.B.C. My FUEL-lines are FREEZing up.
Control: A.B.C. SAY aGAIN
Pilot: A.B.C. My FUEL is FREEZing. I MUST desCEND to FLIGHT LEVel TWO FIFE ZERO
Control: A.B.C. aFFIRM desCENT to FLIGHT LEVel TWO FIFE ZERO.